Due Sep 9
Fixed Stars and Wanderers
Stars, planets, comets, novas, and shooting stars as observed by the ancients. Greek astronomy under the influence of Plato: Eudoxus, Aristotle. Linking Ancient Egyptian sun-worship and the design of the Giza pyramid complex.
Astronomy Reading
- Openstax Astronomy (pdf | online), Chapters 2 and 4.1-4.4
- Magli, Archaeoastronomy, Ch 8: selections.
Fieldwork Prep
Read the instructions for the Autumnal Equinox fieldwork, linked at right. Then, as a trial run for that experiment, photograph the setting sun with your cellphone camera. Upload the resulting image to the fieldwork page, along with a 1¶ reflection: is this a good location for carrying out the full experiment?
Arts Assignment
Examine one of the following texts or artifacts from the perspective of an archaeologist. What does it suggest about the cosmology of the culture that created it? — beliefs about the heavens and their relationship to people and places on Earth? Use the first ¶ to give a rich description of the text or artifact, including the place and date of creation. Use the second ¶ to push toward a fuller understanding of the culture that produced this piece. To be clear: I’m less interested in your ability to look up correct answers than in your analytical insights based on what you see and how you imagine it being used. (For example, you might consider whether the object served to maintain or to challenge existing social norms and hierarchies.) If you quote or paraphrase, provide an MLA source citation.
- Christ’s Nativity, as described in Matthew 1:18–2:12 (King James Version)
- The Head of Alexander the Great as the Sun God Helios (MFA Boston)
- Relief of Akhenaten as a Sphinx (MFA Boston)
- Iranian Sun-Disk Pectoral (MFA Boston)
- The Trundholm Sun Chariot (National Museum of Denmark)
Post your response below by clicking “Reply” under the appropriate heading. (Note: for best results, include two ¶ breaks between your ¶s.)
Christ’s Nativity
The Matthew 1:18-2:12 excerpt was written in the late first century CE in Judea. The Gospel of Matthew as whole focuses on the fulfillment of prophecies from the Old Testament and uses many cosmic signs including stars, dreams, and angels to communicate Jesus’ supernatural being. In this bible excerpt it tells the story of Jesus’ birth starting with an angel delivering dreams to Joseph, telling him about how his wife Mary will carry the son of God. A star guides the magi to the place of Jesus’ birth and stops over the place in Bethlehem, a clear sign from the heavens. When the family was departing Bethlehem, an angel appeared to Joseph again, giving him directions, another connection between heavenly and earthly beings.
The culture at the time when this was written was that heaven and earth were closely intertwined and could be communicated between through dreams, celestial objects, etc. It shows that heaven was not an entirely separate space and that divine beings were influencing the lives of people on earth through these signs. Along with that, this excerpt demonstrates numerous times that humans were trusting of these spiritual signs like the magi following the star and Joseph listening to the angel in his dreams. Ultimately, everyone was subjected to divine intervention as God’s plan was put into action.
I believe the use of a star guiding the Magi to Jesus resembles how the stars are beyond the reach of humanity & celestial events are perceived to be sent by God. The Star of Bethlehem is one of the most famous celestial events in the Bible and very well could have been an occurring celestial event. It can’t be determined whether a shooting star did actually stop over Jesus’ house, but a shooting star visible to those from other countries could very well have happened. I would be interested to learn more about different cultures’ interpretations of shooting stars, as unlike constellations, they do not persist and can only be observed at the event.
When large celestial events do occur, they are documented across multiple cultures each with their own interpretation. For example, Halley’s Comet in 1066 was deemed as a bad omen by the English and a sign from the heavens by Duke William of Normandy. Interestingly, these interpretations would be indicative of the Battle of Hastings half a year later. The Bayeux Tapestry, a 230 foot long embroidered cloth, depicts the history of the conflict including Halley’ Comet.
“955 Years Ago: Halley’s Comet and the Battle of Hastings.” NASA, NASA, 21 Sept. 2023, http://www.nasa.gov/history/95.....-hastings/.
Matthew 1:18-2:12 was most likely written sometime after 70 CE. In this response, I will focus on the significance of King Herod’s juxtaposition to the wise men. Once Jesus was born, the text explains that wise men, following a star from the East, arrived in Jerusalem, and asked King Herod where they could find Jesus. He sends them to Bethlehem, asking them to return with any information about his whereabouts, under the guise of wanting to worship Jesus himself, though clearly because he was afraid of the threat of Jesus’s power to him. To me, it is interesting that King Herod was not aware of the star of Bethlehem before it is made known to him by the wise men. It is possible that the author(s) of Matthew wanted to create a clear division between those devout to God and King Herod. The stars, believed to be a creation of God, would most likely have been read as a representation of the divine (Genesis). In this way, the cosmology in this nativity story acts as an allegory for a common theme throughout the rest of Matthew’s Gospel–that of Jesus being a shepherd. Those that were faithful to God, and worshiped Jesus, can be herded into divinity, or in this case, guided by his light. King Herod, too focused on his political career could not. The author(s) of Matthew close this section with King Herod’s death.
This could hold cultural for Christians at the time, as it disrupted the current power structures. It was not Kings that held the power, but rather God. Any person, through following God would be blessed with divinity. King Herod, unable to follow the star himself, focused on maintaining his social power, dies soon after. This could have reframed ideas about what power means for Christians of the time, who could have seen more honor in being devout than in having wealth, status, etc.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Gospel According to Mark”. Encyclopedia Britannica, 28 Feb. 2025, https://www.britannica.com/top.....ng-to-Mark. Accessed 8 September 2025.
The text from Matthew tells the story of Jesus’s birth, starting with Mary’s pregnancy and Joseph’s dream where an angel reassures him to stay by her side. The account moves quickly from the personal to the cosmic: where according to the tale of “wise men from the east to Jerusalem,” a bright star rises in the sky, leading them from far away to Bethlehem. Dreams and celestial signs guide the characters at every turn, whether it’s Joseph deciding what to do, the magi finding the child, or the family escaping Herod’s rage. The heavens are not just a backdrop but instead active in the story, sending messages and pointing the way. Heaven and Earth are tied together, reminding me of the theme of Hierophany.
Interestingly, some explanations for this phenomenon from a scientific view include a supernova, a comet, a massing of planets, a triple conjunction of Jupiter and Regulus, or the astonishing conjunction of Jupiter and Venus on June 17, 2 BC. However, none seems to explain truly how the star “went ahead of” the magi nor how it “stood over where the child was.” Therefore, the star that led the magi seems to be one of those incredible acts of God where he may suspend natural laws for his own unique purpose.
In my opinion, the story might reflect a culture that believed human fate was deeply connected to cosmic forces. A star marking the birth of a child suggests universal significance on Earth and the heavens could bend themselves to show those moments. The wise men’s journey in finding Jesus shows even outsiders recognized this cosmic signal, challenging the authority of an earthly king like Herod.
Lisle, Jason. “The Star of Bethlehem.” Answers in Genesis, 7 Nov. 2006, answersingenesis.org/christmas/the-star-of-bethlehem/.
In Matthew’s account of Christ’s nativity, Jesus’s birth takes place during the reign of Herod. The excerpt contains many miraculous events, such as Mary’s immaculate conception of the Holy Ghost, Joseph’s dream visions, and the star which leads the wise men to Jesus. The passage mixes together celestial events with prophetic references and issues. It also contains material symbolism like the wise men’s gifts and Herod’s massacre of infants.
The nativity story makes us think that divine will is shown through both natural signs and human responses. The heavens provide the script for the events on earth, aligning itself with destiny. The dreams are like a bridge between the divine and the human, where people are expected to see these dreams as a truth. The tension with Herod and Jesus shows how cosmology can be used to challenge political hierarchy, with the divine always coming first. The combination of heaven and Earth makes me think that this is a culture that used cosmology to stabilize Jesus as the promised savior and as a means to unsettle rulers on Earth.
This passage from Matthew 1:18–2:12 was probably written around 85 CE by an unknown author for a Jewish-Christian community in Antioch, Syria [1]. It tells the story of Jesus’s birth, where Mary becomes pregnant due to the “Holy Spirit”, Joseph almost leaves Mary, but he was told that the child would be named Jesus and that he would save people from their sins. Jesus was born in Bethlehem during Herod’s reign, and a star in the sky drew wise men from the east to worship him, along with gifts. Herod, however, felt threatened and ordered to kill young children to eliminate Jesus, but Joseph was warned again in a dream and took his family to Egypt for safety. After Herod dies, they return and eventually settle in Nazareth.
From my perspective, this indicates the thoughts that people from the culture behind this text had that they were closely linked to the cosmos. Stars and other cosmic events weren’t just random effects; they were understood as the tools of communication from God. People back then didn’t have scientific explanations for why stars appeared a certain way or moved across the sky, so they assumed they had significance, as a kind of divine language. This idea shows the initial fantasy and pursuit of understanding the cosmos. Instead of seeing the stars as cold and distant, they treated them as something sacred, meaningful, and holy. That’s why a star could be seen as announcing Jesus’ birth–it shows how much trust and authority people placed in the heavens. To them, the mystery of the universe wasn’t just a way to explain the unknown; it was also a way for them to strengthen their faith and give purpose to the world.
[1] The Gospel of Matthew: An In-Depth Scholarly Analysis. Integrity Seminary Blog, 8 Nov. 2024.
The passage in Matthew 1:18–2:12 tells the story of Jesus’ birth as something guided by more than just people. In the passage, Joseph receives messages from angels in his dreams, where there is a guiding star in the night sky to guide his travels as well as a collection of prophecies from prophets being fulfilled. The story takes place in Judea during the reign of King Herod. The main focus is on the connection between heaven and earth. The star plays a significant role, because it shows how the heavens were also thought to be moved upon by God, as a way of guiding people towards God’s work.
The culture behind this text shows the world and the heavens as deeply connected. God revealed his will through signs in the sky and also through messages in dreams. Bethlehem or Nazareth, which are ordinary places, became important as they were tied to a divine purpose. The story also shows how power on earth could be challenged by power from heaven. This is shown through Herod fearing losing control and through Joseph and the wise men following guidance from the heavens. This suggests a belief that true authority came not from kings but from God working through both heaven and earth.
This passage from Matthew 1:18-2:12 functions as a narrative and a theological artifact. It presents the story of Jesus’s birth, his recognition by heavenly signs, and his threat to earthly rulers. The text moves from Mary’s pregnancy to guidance at each turn by divine intervention through dreams and celestial signs. The narrative treats heaven not as distant but as intimately linked with earthly events such as the stars visible to the wise men, leading them across to the child. The heavens and the human are not portrayed as separate realms but as parts of the same drama. In this way, the passage presents itself as both historical narrative and cosmic revelation.
From an archaelogical persepctive, this text points to a view where the cosmos was understood as a responsive system infused with divine meaning. Stars and dreams served as messages and signs to those attuned to divine will. The text also maintains prevailing hierarchies whereby heaven is also seen as a body of spiritual authority: Herod is troubled by the prophecy while the wise men recognize the true king by reading the heavens. The story affirms that divine authority transcends earthly power but also consolidates the connection between cosmic order and the destiny of the child in Bethlehem.
Alexander / Helios
This marble head, carved in the Roman period around the second century A.D., shows Alexander the Great as Helios, the sun god. It is made of Carrara marble from northwest Italy and once formed part of a nearly colossal statue. The head is turned sharply upward, giving it a forceful presence, curling locks of hair, and a ruler’s band frames the face. The scale, material, and upward gaze all work together to make the figure appear larger than life, suggesting both beauty and divine power.
This piece shows how Roman culture linked famous rulers with divine forces. By portraying Alexander as Helios, the artist connected political authority with the heavens, suggesting that leadership was backed by cosmic order. The sculpture shows the idea that rulers were more than just humans. They are chosen or favored by the gods, and therefore deserved loyalty and respect. In this way, the artifact reflects a society where art supports the social hierarchy by tying human power directly to gd.
This marble sculpture of Alexander the Great as the sun god Helios, created during the Roman era in the second century A.D., was originally part of a massive statue. Carved from high-quality Carrara marble, the head shows Alexander with an intense upward gaze, surrounded by flowing hair that gives the impression of sun rays. A band around his head marks him as a ruler, but the overall look goes beyond human—it presents him as something divine. From an archaeologist’s perspective, this piece reflects how Roman society often connected powerful leaders with gods to strengthen their authority. The sculpture implies that Alexander’s leadership was not just political but also a part of the natural order of the world by transforming him into a representation of the sun god. People would have felt that obeying their king was not only required but virtually a religious duty if they had seen such a picture. It demonstrates how art could be utilised to uphold societal systems by presenting authority as unassailable and cosmic.
“Head of Alexander the Great as Helios.” Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, http://www.mfa.org/collections.....lios-63336
The artifact above is the head of Alexander the great made out of marble. But it is not that simple, it is like the features of Alexander and those of helios combined. The radiant hair is a really important feature since it is meant to represent the rays of the sun which comes from the known description of helios. The head is tilted up assuming it is looking at the heavens or even the sun itself. Back in the day, rulers were often compared to deities due to their crazy accomplishment. that for the common folk might seem imposible. It is meant to suggest power and it is a symbol of religion.
From the perspective of an archeologist, the head reveals a the importance in liking the earthly realm with the heavenly one. The artist implied that the power gained or granted to Alex was not only political or diplomatic, but also celestial as if sent by the gods. The common folk know Alex is not Helios, but they could relate him to Helios as if Helios had passed a blessing on him. This placed the heavens closer to the people rather than something reached after death. The head is not really about Alex and Helios, but about how in terms of the cosmos, the heaven, the starts and the gods are actually closer than what they originally believed.
The Head of Alexander the Great or Helios, the Sun God is a Roman statue made of marble from Carrara in northwest Italy. The statue was created either around the 2nd century A.D. or during the 19th century. It depicts Alexander the Great in resemblance to the Titan sun god Helios. Alexander originally wore a crown that resembled rays of the sun; all that remains today are the holes that once mounted it. The Romans admired historical figures as well as art, and they produced many similar statues. In particular, there are numerous statues of Alexander the Great designed to resemble Helios, created not only by the Romans but also by the Greeks.
I believe the Roman culture that created this, along with other cultures that produced similar works, was fascinated with the idea of the relationship between humans and gods. Designing statues like this suggests they often questioned the purpose of human existence and the role people played in relation to the divine. By comparing a human figure such as Alexander to a god—specifically Helios—the artist may have been suggesting that humans, like the sun, could be seen as central to the universe (all-seeing and all-touching). I believe the artists were deeply interested in the purpose of life on earth and what humanity’s connection to the gods might mean.
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Head of Alexander the Great or Helios, the Sun God. Object no. 151130, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. https://collections.mfa.org/objects/151130.
“A Roman Marble Head of Helios, After Alexander the Great.” London Art Week, Kallos Gallery Limited, 2021, https://londonartweek.co.uk/wp.....-Great.pdf.
This sculpture of Alexander the Great shows a youthful head with smooth marble skin. The curls seem to almost look like rays of sunlight. Even with the broken nose and chipped chin, it still feels alive. What stands out is how he’s blended with Helios, the sun god, turning a ruler into a celestial presence for the viewers at the time in the Mediterranean.
What I find interesting about sculptures from this time is that Roman viewers wouldn’t just look at the statue from the front. They could walk around it and see how light hit the marble at different angles as the day went on. Sort of like watching the sun shift across the sky. Rather than painting an image that could be more detailed, the artist chose a 3 dimensional piece that invites you to look at it from different angles. This could be a subtle echo of their understanding of the cosmos itself, where people and gods were bound to the movements of celestial bodies.
Akhenaten as a Sphinx
I chose Relief of Ahkenaten as a Sphinx artifact. It appears to be a limestone engraving artifact of a sphinx facing the sun with open palms, either presenting or receiving something. The artifact dates to the mid 14th century from Egypt under Akhenaten’s reign. There are other symbols carved into the rock around the sphinx, but the central focus of the image is clearly the sphinc and its position relating to the sun. The engraving surrounds a temple’s doorway thus indicating its importance with proximity to religion.
The sphinx represented a figure of high favor and importance, and its position as subservient and obedient to the sun highlights the reverence held even from Egypt’s king to the sun. Believing the rays of the sun to be “life-giving”, the open palms show the king’s personification, the Sphinx, requesting life from the sun and displaying subservience (“Relief of Ahkenaten”). The artifact’s position surrounding a temple doorway reflects the religious importance of the sun within Egyptian culture, as the sun was given dominion over life, thus intertwining the sun into religion and afterlife. Tying the artifact’s location and imagery together communicates that the Egyptian culture held significant reverence of the sky’s power and that the sun was intertwined with the religion and architecture of the region.
“Relief of Akhenaten as a Sphinx.” Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, https://collections.mfa.org/ob.....s-a-sphinx. Accessed 7 Sept. 2025.
This limestone relief is from the city of Akhetaten, depicting the pharaoh of the same name as a sphinx. The pharaoh-sphinx is shown in worship, extending offerings to the sun (Aten), which is the solar disk in the sky of the relief. From the Aten, rays of life fall on the pharaoh’s face.
The relief reflects Akhetaten’s religious reforms. By depicting himself as a sphinx (usually associated with the sun god Ra), Akhetaten creates an exclusive connection between him and Aten, ignoring the rest of the pantheon of gods and what they represent. Akhetaten creates a new hierarchy where the Sun/Aten is the ultimate power and the only god he answers to
The Akhenaten as a Sphinx is a depiction of a pharaoh, Akhenaten, as a sphinx through a limestone slab. This work of art was created within the years of 1349-1331 BC in Egypt’s New Kingdom during the reign of Akhenaten. This piece is said to depict Akhenaten giving an offering to the sun god of Egypt. Akhenaten raises his hands to the sun god, depicted in the left corner, one hand raised for an offering and the other raises for adoration of the god.
I think this piece of work helps depict how greatly everyone within the Egyptian culture worshiped and views the gods. While there was a change that occurred under Akhenaten, there is still a consistent depiction of praise, admiration, and a divide between the living and gods. This work also shows the importance of the sun within Egyptian culture. There is a clear relationship drawn between the sun and Akhenaten, showing that the sun is important to not only worship but absorb (done so through the raised hands). In the article, the MFA describes the rays of sun as “life-giving in so many hands”. By including “so many hands”, we know that this is not just important to the ruler but also all of the common people within this time.
Relief of Akhenaten as a Sphinx.” Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, https://collections.mfa.org/ob…..s-a-sphinx. Accessed 8 Sept. 2025.
This limestone merges royal and solar imagery, presenting the pharaoh with the body of a lion and human head, aligned with the sun god Aten. Its placement at a temple threshold signaled Akhenaten’s role as guardian and mediator between divine light and earthly life.
Viewed archaeologically, the relief reflects Akhenaten’s radical reorientation of Egyptian cosmology. By portraying himself as both ruler and solar symbol, Akhenaten collapsed the distance between god and king, asserting that cosmic order flowed directly through him. Rather than supporting a broad pantheon, this artifact embodies Atenism’s exclusive focus on the sun disk and centralized royal authority. It suggests a culture in which divine legitimacy was tied to political reform, reshaping cosmology to reinforce the pharaoh’s unique, almost divine role.
The limestone of Akhenaten was estimated to be built around 14th century BCE at Amarna. It depicts a king who has the body of a lion and the arms of a human. Those human arms’s purpose is to be able to make offerings to Aten. His sun rays lead to small hands, next to the cartouches of Neferiti and Akhenaten surrounding the scene.
The artifact suggests that the sun deity’s divine power is sent down to earth directly from the king. By redefining the sphinx, Akhenaten reinforces authority through spiritual and religious means, by adding a cosmic order to things. This is interesting because it challenges Ancient Egypt’s widely known polytheism by stating that a sole divine force rules both the king and the people
Works Cited
The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Relief of Akhenaten as a Sphinx. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection
The Sphinx is the pharaoh adoring the Aten sun from the Akhenaten region 1349-1336 BCE. The sun rays give life to the pharaoh, inscriptions name Akhenaten and Nefertiti. As a temple doorway at Amarna, the message of the pharaoh as the lion and man with the worship of the sun shows the architecture and theology in one.
The cosmology of divine power from Aten, not Gds, is visualized via the sun. Akhenaten receives the cosmic life showing the power over other traditions. The sun flowing to the pharaoh makes him the bridge between human and celestial bodies.
The Relief of Akhenaten as a sphinx dates to the 14th century B.C., during Egypt’s New Kingdom period, where Akhenaten became the tenth ruler of the 18th dynasty. It’s a relief sculpture carefully carved into limestone, depicting Akhenaten himself as a sphinx resting over a plinth, represent him as a statue. However, unlike other depictions of sphinxes, he possesses human arms through which he is offering to the sun disk god, Aten. The sun’s rays covering the offering stand in the lower bottom and Akhenaten himself, as to demonstrate he is divinely blessed. Along the relief there are various inscriptions, which indicate it would be located in a temple where Akhenaten could demonstrate his devotion to Aten.
More critically, this tablet allows us to comprehend the views that Akhenaten himself had towards the cosmos and Egyptian deities. As a pharaoh he was supposed to be a figure lying between the realm of gods and humans [1], however he was known for his strict adoration to the sun disk god, Aten. This can be seen with how the sun itself is depicted wearing the uraeus [2], the stylized cobra used as a symbol of sovereignty and divine authority. Furthermore, by depicting himself as a sphinx, he asserts his faith as divine guardianship to the divine power of Aten, underscoring his newly monotheistic view.
[1] Giulio Magli, Springer International, 2016. Archaeoastronomy: Introduction to the Science of Stars and Stones; Chapter 8, 8.1: A seat among the Imperishable.
[2] Relief of Akhenaten as a Sphinx.” Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, https://collections.mfa.org/ob.....s-a-sphinx. Accessed 9 Sept. 2025.
The artifact I chose is the Relief of Akhenaten as a Sphinx from ancient Egypt. It shows the Pharaoh Akhenaten in the form of a sphinx, blending human and animal features. Instead of just being shown as a normal king, he’s pictured as a powerful, almost divine figure connected to the sun god Aten.
To me, this suggests that Akhenaten’s culture saw their rulers as more than just political leaders; they were tied to the heavens and spiritual life. By combining himself with a sphinx and pointing toward the sun god, Akhenaten was showing that he was a kind of link between the people and the cosmos. It also makes sense since he is known for shifting Egypt’s religion toward worshiping Aten, so this relief may have helped support that new idea.
Sun-Disk Pectoral
Currently on view at the Museum of Fine Arts Boston’s Ancient Near East Gallery, the Iranian Sun-Disk Pectoral was created in the Caspian coastal region of Iran during the 10th to 9th century B.C. (MFA Boston). This gold piece displays a sun-like star with four circular stars between each of its eleven points, a depressed center, two outer circles, and a hasp used to put on a necklace (MFA Boston). It is thought that this symbolized sun god Shamash’s authority on earth and his patronage (MFA Boston). Therefore, the piece is one of Iran’s unique pieces with meaningful significance.
Regarding cosmology, the Sun-Disk Pectoral’s central image of the sun reflects the belief that the sun’s power is central to maintain life and order on Earth. As the MFA notes, this relates to how the piece must have been used as a protective necklace. Also, the symmetry of the points and uniform pattern of the studs may mean harmony on Earth. Overall, the piece seems to have served to maintain existing social norms and hierarchies because of the link to divinity when wearing it, reinforcing their authority and wishing to have a peaceful world.
Citation: “Sun-Disk Pectoral.” MFABoston, collections.mfa.org/objects/267461/sundisk-pectoral. Accessed 8 Sept. 2025.
This Sun Disk Pectoral is currently in the MFA. The disk is made of gold and has a 9.3cm diameter (MFA Boston). On the disk there is a central Sun with 11 rays and 4 little stars in between each of the rays (MFA Boston). The Sun itself features a spiral double-helix design on its outside of and a sunken core(MFA Boston). Finally, the disk features a hasp at the top of it (MFA Boston).
The MFA speculates that this disk was intended to be a pendant to a necklace of some sort due to the hasp at the top of the necklace (MFA Boston). This piece originated from Mesopotamia in easter Iran, in their culture they greatly worshipped the sun and saw it as a very powerful God, representing justice and authority (MFA Boston). I believe that the consistent patterns as well as the perception of the sun by the people of Mesopotamia at the time that this piece was meant to be protective piece that was meant to hold the harmony of the world like the pattern in the pendant. The MFA states that this pendant might have been worn to show respect the Sun God’s authority and the harmony that he creates in the world, and that they wore the pendant to be protected and worship the god for all of his help in their lives (MFA Boston).
“Sun-Disk Pectoral.” MFABoston, collections.mfa.org/objects/267461/sundisk-pectoral. Accessed 9 Sept. 2025.
The sun pectoral disk is currently on display at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. It was made sometime in the Iron age, 10th – 9th century B.C., in eastern modern day Iran. This pectoral disk was widely used in olden day Iran. It represents the god of sun and the god of justice. People often wore these disks as necklaces to give them spiritual protection and symbolize a connection to faith.
At the time that this was believed to be created, the Islamic caliphate had started to spread islam around Iran, while Zoroastrians were still a protected minority. I mention this because in Islam the sun is viewed as a creation of divine power, so it is heavily respected, and Zoroastrians view it as a sign of divine truth, safety, and faith. I believe that this was not only well preserved because of the shared respect but also showed the connection that different religions shared at the time because of the mutual respect they held for the sun despite cultural differences.
Its form reminds me of a tradiant disk, with carefully incised rays extending outward like spokes of a wheel. Its design draws the viewer’s eye toward the center, suggesting a deliberate emphasis on the solar form as both a source of illumination and authority. The craftsmanship and its careful details kind of give off the vibe that this was not a casual decorative piece but one reserved for ritual or elite use. Its portability also suggests it was meant to be displayed on the body, aligning the wearer physically with the cosmic power of the sun.
From an archaeological perspective, the pectoral reveals a culture that linked celestial order with earthly status. It’s made out of gold, which is resistant to tarnish and also reminds the viewer of the sun. It could be said that this implies that solar power was understood as something that is timeless and divine. Perhaps, in this culture, the sun-disk pectoral is supposed to be worn on the chest like jewelry, almost fusing the human body with cosmic energy. Furthermore, this artifact could be seen as a way to reinforce hierarchy. Those who wore it were mediators who served as contacts with the divine order, and they are above and may pass down words of wisdom to the social order below.
Trundholm Sun Chariot
The Trundholm Sun Chariot, created during the early Bronze Age around 1400 BCE in what is now Denmark, is an exquisite artifact featuring a gilded bronze disc believed to represent the sun, mounted on a horse-drawn wheeled chariot. This piece was discovered in a peat bog on the Trundholm moor and is notable for its intricate craftsmanship with both the sun disc and the horse are rendered with attention to form and detail, suggesting deep reverence for both the animal and celestial body. Its wheels make it clear that it was designed to be moved or carried in procession, possibly used in ritual contexts where the concept of the sun’s movement across the sky would be physically enacted (“The Sun Chariot,” National Museum of Denmark).
Examining this artifact from an archaeological perspective, the Trundholm Sun Chariot offers a tangible window into how Bronze Age societies conceptualized the relationship between earthly life and the heavens. The choice to place the sun on a literal chariot, drawn by a horse, implies a cosmology in which the sun is not a distant, abstract entity but an active participant in earthly affairs, propelled by recognizable forms from daily life. This merging of the celestial and terrestrial seems less about challenging the social order and more about reinforcing communal beliefs. Performance of rituals with the chariot may have served to sustain existing hierarchies by empowering those who controlled the artifact and the associated ceremonies. Its use would have lent legitimacy to religious leaders or communities responsible for maintaining cosmological order, promoting a worldview in which divine movement aligned with human ritual and seasonal cycles.
The Sun Chariot
The Sun Chariot, which was found in Trundholm Mose in northwest New Zealand in 1902, was made in 1400 BCE during the Early Bronze Age. The artifact is a wheeled disc of gilded bronze that depicts the sun and is drawn by a bronze horse. Nordic creative traditions are reflected in the disc’s golden surface and the elaborate spiral embellishment, which highlights the sun’s holiness. The fact that the horse and the disc are both mounted on wheels suggests that the sun was envisioned as making daily trips across the sky. The Sun Chariot exhibits both the culture’s craftsmanship and its cosmological emphasis on celestial cycles through its material and shape.
The Sun Chariot suggests that this Nordic society thought the heavens were animated by heavenly energies, according to archaeologists. The image of a horse pulling the sun implies that the sun did not move mechanically or at random, but rather with purpose and the help of a higher power. Because it linked the rhythms of everyday life, like farming, with the cosmic order, this cosmology might have strengthened social and religious hierarchies. In addition, the artifact might have served as a tangible reminder that human survival hinged on preserving balance with heavenly patterns in ritual or ceremonial settings. In this way, the Sun Chariot represents a worldview that held that the sun’s orderly passage was essential to terrestrial stability.
“The Sun Chariot – National Museum of Denmark.” National Museum of Denmark, 2019, en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-bronze-age/the-sun-chariot/.
I chose to go with the The Trundholm Sun Chariot which is currently at the National Museum of Denmark. The Sun Chariot is from the Bronze Age, and it was founded in September 1902, and it is said to date back to around 1400 BC. The artifact is a small bronze sculpture depicting a horse which is mounted on wheels and it seems to be pulling a disc which looks like a sun, which is also on wheels. The overall sculpture is extremely similar to what a horse chariot looks like, though I’m slightly confused as to why the horses are on wheels. The overall sculpture is extremely beautifully crafted, depicting the Nordic Craftsmanship(as referred to by the man in the video attached).
“It tells about a prehistoric religion of the gods age, it tells about a divine horse, a sun horse.” as said by the historian in the video(National Museum of Denmark). The chariot shows how the Bronze Age nordics saw the heavens and their relations with god and life on earth. The museum video describes this sculpture, as “ “A divine horse which pulls the sun over the heavens during the day and through the darkness of the underworld of the night” (National Museum of Denmark). This shows that people saw the sun as an object that was a part of their lives, tied to their everyday activities. During this period, horses and chariots carried a special meaning. Horses were seen as symbols of strength, status and mobility. Chariots were essentially seen as royal vehicles, they changed the way how people moved, hunted and it carried a sense of prestige. This sculpture shows the sun placed in a horse chariot, these people believed that the most heavenly body was tied to their lives and own experiences on earth. Furthermore, going back to my confusion of the horses being on wheels, this could potentially indicate how the vehicle(the horses) of the sun is always cyclical and moving, indicating that the sun is always active. Since horses and chariots were associate with status and prestige, this sculpture could be seen as showing the sun in a form that also shows in this superior heavenly status.
National Museum of Denmark. The Sun Chariot. YouTube, uploaded by National Museum of Denmark, 25 Nov. 2014, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z9nVd_6oU5Y. Accessed 8 Sept. 2025.
The Sun Chariot, discovered in 1902 in a bog (Trundholm Mose) on the island of Sjaelland in Trundolm, Denmark, is a remarkable archaeological find from Scandinavia. The bronze artifact depicts a divine horse hitched in front of a chariot, pulling along the sun. Researchers believe that there would have been a string/rope attached between the horse and disc. The sun disc is split into two distinct sides: a golden side, representing the day, and a dark side without gold, representing the night. Both sides are decorated with concentric circular and spiral patterns. This concentric and spiral motif is commonly found in other finds around eastern Denmark during that time, suggesting that this artifact was likely created in that region. Dating to around 1400 BC during the Bronze Age, archaeologically, this artifact is one of the earliest depictions of a domesticated horse found in Europe. The ideological counterpart to this depiction (not shown) is the idea of a ship pulling the sun during the night (Price).
In Europe, hunter-gatherering societies prevailed before the Bronze Age. During the Bronze Age, the Indo-Europeans arrived, with bronze weapons, chariots, and domesticated horses. For the new elites, bronze, the wheel, chariots, and horses represent military might and real power: these elements are all depicted in the artifact. Thus, it is not surprising that the new ruling elites connected this earthly power to celestial power – if the horse represents real power on land, then a ‘divine horse’ represents the same for the celestial realm. This artifact was possibly created to show the link between celestial power and religious/real power on earth. Perhaps it was used as part of religious ceremonies to legitimize and re-affirm the power held by religious, military and political leaders who supported and benefitted from this ideology. Additionally, this artifact hints at a geometric innovation associated with power and the supernatural: circles and spirals. The discovery of the circular wheel powered chariots, an innovation that allowed the new elites to cross great distances and exercise military force. The horse is pulling along a straightforward line, but the wheels are circular and power that motion. Likewise, the concentric circles and spirals on the disc likely represent the power of circles and spiral motions to bring life force energy to the sun and the world. In contrast, the motion of the horse suggests an understanding of time and motion of its Bronze Age creators: forward, straight, linear, and restricted in range. For these people, time likely moves in a straightforward arrow, taking only one path. Finally, there is a clear divide between night and day on the disc – this might be an ideological belief, or limits of the technology of that time. Overall, this piece hints at some of the ideology of its creators, but we must also recognize the limits of the technology available to the people of that time.
Price, T. Douglas. Ancient Scandinavia: An Archaeological History from the First Humans to the Vikings. Oxford University Press, 2015.
The Trundholm Sun Chariot was created around 1400 BCE and discovered in Denmark in 1902. This is a Bronze Age artifact that is now housed in the National Museum of Denmark. This artifact shows a house pulling a gilded disk on wheels, representing the sun. One side of the disk is gold, representing the day, and the other side is dark, representing the night. The design suggests motion, as if the sun were drawn across the sky. This also likely played a role in rituals that highlighted the community’s dependence on solar cycles for things like farming.
The artifact reflects a cosmology centered on renewal and the link between heaven and earth. By depicting the sun as pulled by a horse, the culture explained cosmic order through a familiar earthly metaphor. This parallels Greek mythology, where Helios drives a fiery chariot across the sky. Both traditions show how people imagined heaven through everyday experience, linking divine power to humans.